Construction Management and Health Safety Free Essay Example, 1000 words

The terrain and slopping of the area will also determine the construction expenses. A sloppy or highly mountainous area will require a deeper tunnel which will be expensive to construct, unlike a gentle sloppy area where the tunnel will be easy to construct, ad will be less costly. The construction materials will also determine the construction cost. Locally available materials will be cheap. However, other materials may require importation or may be generally expensive. The mode of construction of the tunnel will also determine its expenses. Shallow tunnels are easy and to construct, unlike deep underground tunnels which will require stronger materials and highly skilled personnel. The nature of the area under construction will also determine the machinery to be used. Rocky areas will require strong machinery which will add to the construction cost. Constructions of tunnels under deep waters will also be costly (Hemphill, 2013). The size of the tunnel is another aspect that will de termine its procurement. Large tunnels which are wide and extents along large areas will add on the materials to be used, making this expensive and more costly. We will write a custom essay sample on Construction Management and Health & Safety or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Short and narrow tunnels are easy and cheap to construct. The technology used in the construction work will be another determinate factor. The contract price of the construction project is determined uponthe evaluation of the nature of the tunnel, required materials of construction and the labour to be employed. The price should cater for the machineries to be used, whether for purchase or hire. Long term construction will require purchase of machinery, while a short term contract may involve hire of the machines. The pricing of the equipment and construction materials should be based on the current market price, and should cater of unforeseen contingencies such as breakdown, failure or cases of theft (European agency for safety and health at work, 2004). Upon the establishment of the construction cost, the monitoring of the cost is the responsibility of the contractor. The contractor is solely responsible of assessing the amount of money allocated for the project, its flow infrom the funding department and the flow out, I terms of purchase of materials and settling t of the labour expenses. This is detailed showing ex penditure for each individual item over the period of the project. The monitoring of cash flow and project cost can be doe through the use of the cash flow charts. The cashflow charts enables the project manager to foresee and prevent any case of liquidity problem.

Informative Essay About Neil Postmans Amusing Ourselves...

Neil postman was a jack of all trades, he was an American Author, an educator at New York University, media theorist, and cultural critic. (PressThink 1) In 1985 Neil Postman published a book called Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourage in the Age of show Business. The book provides a look at what happens when politics, journalism, education and even religion become subject to the demands of entertainment. In his book Amusing Ourselves to Death Postman says that the content of a culture is contained in its communication, and that the content of communication is affected by the medium of communication. In other words, Postman is saying that a culture is defined by its connection of people, and the connection of people is afflicted by technology. Sherry Turkle is another author that has written a book called Alone Together published in January 2011. Sherry Turkle is an award winning professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where she focuses her research on human technology interaction. Alone Together is the results of Turkle’s nearly fifteen year exploration of our lives with technology, she describes new unsettling relationships between friends, family, parents and children, and new instabilities in how we understand privacy and community. There is a third author named Julia Angwin that has developed a book that connects with Postman’s argument. Julia Angwin is an award winning investigative journalist at a news organization called ProPublica. (About)

Application Of A Computer Programmer - 907 Words

Introduction of the role: Typically, Fujitsu seeking programmers received a bachelor s degree in computer science, and learning to write computer code and debug programs. Some people also need the relevant industry, it plans to enter the courses - finance and healthcare. Other students may get a liberal arts degree, majoring in business administration and perhaps computer science specialization. Job description: Computer programmer, any computer language of a typical day s work may involve the need to prepare their work. For example a java program it needs coding and debugging a computer programmer know the coding for given program when the programmer also known as a patch, and find this problem solve the errors. Software developer’s programmers often work side by side, the language of computer programmers and software systems will be able to understand the translation. More and more programmers in dealing with mobile applications and other Internet-based software applications duties. Ethical and Unethical behavior: Connection between programmer and client and system: Some strict regulations for the establishment and maintenance of Morel rules and regulations collaborative efforts, often a lot, and people. Critics noted that â€Å"the case of an attack, a computer determines the quality of moral or ethical . Undoubtedly, the State must exist in order to prevent negative consequences and technical systems, but no one in this particular area is able to draw the lineShow MoreRelatedAnnotated Bibliography On Computer Software Engineering827 Words   |  4 Pagesyear 2008 there were 426,000 computer programmers employed. Computer programmers write the program the computer uses to function. The computer programmer follows the specifications given to them by the computer software engineer. Specialized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system could lead to a computer programmer becoming a computer software engineer. Programming skills and programming experience is highly valued in this field. Computer programmers must constantly upda te theirRead MoreThe Life and Work of a Computer Programmer Essay1263 Words   |  6 PagesThe purpose of a computer programmer is to design and develop applications to perform the needs of a consumer. This occupation is essential to modern day life due to all of the computers that are in use today. Computer programming is a fulfilling career goal because of the ability to be on the cutting edge of technology, design software for computers, and have a wide range of benefits. Computer programming consists of many duties. Duties of a computer programmer include but are not limited to:Read MoreDecision Of Wanting Computer Programming As A Job1482 Words   |  6 Pagesfor more people to build, write programs, higher quality, and repair computers; therefore, numerous growth of technology and high demand of programmers. Regardless, of what they do computer programming has requirements; such as, specific duties, and certain working environments that some may not find suitable. This paper will elucidate the important essentials to understand preliminary to making the decision of wanting computer programming as a job. Read MoreA Career as a Computer Programmer Essay1093 Words   |  5 Pages Becoming a computer programmer would be great because there are many options in this career by having the ability to produce an operating system, or a game for the world. Computer programmers have many opportunities in life to find a job they would love. Programmers can work independently, or in a big company. Programmers have and are creating the future for computers. Computer programmers have a wide range on what they can do. Computer programmers write the detailed list of instructionsRead MoreEssay on Cobol1212 Words   |  5 Pagesinsurance companies. Today, COBOL is rarely used to write new software applications. It has been replaced by the C/C++ programming language, but up until the 80’s all business software was written using COBOL. This includes but not exclusively accounting, payroll, and large bank applications. COBOL is still used today due to the high cost in upgrading software, and recent studies show that as many as twelve million COBOL applications are still used today. Also, a good majority of these are proprietaryRead MoreA Comparison Between Computer Programming And Java1327 Words   |  6 Pages A Comparison Between Computer Programming: Java and C++ in games industry 1.Introduction I chose this topic because these languages are a relationship between programmers and computer without those languages can t use the computer. Moreover, considered one of the models that I will study in September at Swansea University. This is why I find this topic so interesting as it given a lot of detailed information about two programming c++ and java in usesRead MoreWriting Notes And Playing Video Games Essay784 Words   |  4 Pageshard day at the office and you boot up your computer, but today you say to yourself, I m tired of writing notes playing video games, I want to create something! Your girlfriend or your wife walk by you as you stare at the wall and she says, what are you dreaming about? Then you tell her that you really wanted to be a computer programmer instead of a shoe salesman. Then she says to you, you should have gone to college a few years to learn a computer language! But your 50 years old now and youRead MoreThe Link Between Production And Implem entation1684 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is the link between production and implementation? I feel it can be described as a Development Environment. Can Development Environments manage various computer languages, in order to teach the fundamentals of programming? IDEs or Integrated Development Environments are applications that can help assist developers(programmers) with developing software. The first developmental environments were command based, and didn’t look like the menu driven, graphical interfaces of today. In the programmingRead MoreComputer Programs And Software Applications1098 Words   |  5 Pages1) Programmer 2) A programmer’s job is mostly project based. They create applications, using their knowledge of code, and remove all the bugs before setting it forward to the company. A programmer works closely with analysts and management to understand about a problem in the code, and create/edit the expected outcome towards a company. Some duties include: Correcting errors by making appropriate changes and then rechecking the program to ensure that the desired results are produced. ConductingRead MoreTop Highest Pay Jobs For Information Technology Grads Essay1074 Words   |  5 PagesBureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), employment opportunities in the information technology field have been continually expanding for the last 20 years. The BLS stages that the fasted growing and highest paying information technology jobs include computer programmers, systems analysts, software developers and support specialists. The field of information technology offers the best career flexibility, so graduat es may find themselves working in jobs related to business, science, market research, media communications

Macbeth, By William Shakespeare - 1457 Words

The play, Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, presents many societal issues, such as the influence of superstition and the supernatural, as well as the continuous desire of the human race for progress and ambitious fulfilment. What a person chooses to do in order to fulfil those desires depends on the individuals themselves, and in the case of Macbeth, he turns to murder in order to advance his social and political standing. The audience’s perception of Macbeth changes throughout the play, beginning with feelings of admiration and approval of his deeds and character, and ending, with the play and as well as his life, as feelings of contempt and disgust at his treachery. This is achieved mainly through the progression of Macbeth’s character development, as well as through the dialogue of himself and other characters. The characterisation of Macbeth in the beginning of the play constructs him as as a meritorious and noble person, who returns from war as a hero, and has the title of Thane of Cawdor bestowed upon him. These traits are established as part of Macbeth’s character before his first appearance, positioning the audience to view him in a positive light, as the protagonist of the play. He is described by King Duncan as his â€Å"valiant cousin, worthy gentleman! (1:2:26)†. Macbeth is commended by many others, for he is â€Å"brave Macbeth—well he deserves that name— (1:2:18)†. The build up of praise for Macbeth serves to provide a shock factor for the audience, leaving themShow MoreRelatedMacbeth by William Shakespeare770 Words   |  3 PagesThe play Macbeth is written by William Shakespeare. It is believed to be written between 1603 and 1607 and set in eleventh century Scotland. It is also believed to be first performed in 1606. It is considered to be one of the darkest and most powerful tragedies. Macbeth, set in Scotland, dramatizes the psychological and political effects produced when evil is chosen to fulfill the ambition of power. The Tragedy of Macbeth is Shakespeare’s shortest tragedy and tells the story of Macbeth, a ScottishRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1425 Words   |  6 PagesMacbeth Just Can’t Wait To Be King Everyone has a quality that they do not like about themselves. Some people struggle to be social, others may be too controlling of people. The list goes on and on, but the point is that everybody has a particular quality that they must learn to control or else that particular quality can get out of hand. Of course, one could write a list of characters that have major flaws. There is no better example than William Shakespeare’s character, Macbeth, in The TragedyRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1409 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air.† On October 17th, I had the pleasure of going to see Macbeth performed at the Shakespeare Tavern. Along with its reputation for being â€Å"cursed,† Macbeth is also known as one of the crown jewels of William Shakespeare’s repertoire. In my opinion, the central concept of this particular retelling of the play was the murkiness of character. Throughout the pla y, the many characters go through fierce temptation and strife, and noneRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1203 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth is a play based on King James I, it was written by William Shakespeare, however this play isn’t a king and queen fairy tale, but it’s a play about greed and guilt, chaos and murder and three evil witches who use prophecies to influence Macbeth to do bad things, using flattery would instigate his inner ambition to become king, which in the end doesn’t lead to a very happy ending. Shakespeare’s, Macbeth, was written in the early Jacobean period. During those times, women had no power, theyRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1243 Words   |  5 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Macbeth†, the author portrays the main character Macbeth as a very tortured and flawed individual whose actions only serve to further unravel him. He is conflicted and power hungry, which drives him to perform evil murders and become a ruthless person. Macbeth’s moral compass is not resilient enough to withstand his wife’s manipulations and he is provoked to act on his malicious thoughts of murder. The author explores the terrible effects that ambition and guilt can haveRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare Essay1487 Words   |  6 Pagesreaction†. Macbeth by William Shakespeare is a tale which illuminates the consequences of violating the â€Å"Natural order†, the hierarchy of beings in the universe. When Macbeth, a warrior wel l-known for his courage and bravery, murders King Duncan acting on his unchecked ambition to claim the throne, the order was disrupted, the result†¦chaos. Shakespeare uses symbolism to illustrate the atmosphere of the play as the natural order is flung into a state of turmoil. These techniques used by Shakespeare is usedRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1483 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent references in the play of how a king deals with power and if they use it for better or for their own personal gain. In the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, Macbeth’s obsession with his journey to power leads to his failure. This obsession is demonstrated through the prophecies, the murder of his best friend Banquo, and his own demise. Macbeth demonstrates that he is incapable of mastering the power and responsibilities of being a king. This is indicated throughout the play with theRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1045 Words   |  5 PagesBlood appears in only two forms, but many times in Macbeth by William Shakespeare; between the war scene at the beginning of the play and the lifting of Macbeth’s severed being lifted by Macduff at the end. It can be said that Macbeth could have been written in blood that there is such a large amount. What is unique about blood in Macbeth is that the â€Å"imaginary blood† or the guilt that the murderer feels plays more of a role of understand and amplifying the theme of the play, that blood is guiltRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1431 Words   |  6 Pages Macbeth, though originally a valiant and prudent soldier, deteriorates into an unwise king whose rash decisions conclusively end in the atrophy of his title, power, and position. Several facto rs contribute to the downfall of Macbeth, which produce a contagion effect and ultimately end with his demise. He receives help from his â€Å"inner ambitions and external urgings† which result in his downfall (Bernad 49). The â€Å"external urgings† consist of the weird sisters who disclose his prophecies, which enlightenRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1320 Words   |  6 PagesThe oxford dictionary definition of guilt, 1, the fact of having committed a specified or implied offence or crime, 1.1, a feeling of having committed wrong or failed in obligation. In Macbeth written by William Shakespeare, Macbeth, the titular character and his wife Lady Macbeth kill the King in order to become King and Queen themselves, this came with consequences which are still relevant in society today. The guilt they felt and the relevance to sleeplessness are common topics almost four hundred

Operations Performance Objectives Free Essays

1. OPERATIONS PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES In accordance with Slack, Chambers and Johnston, performance objectives is a generic set of performance and indicators that can be used to set the objectives or judge the performance of any type of operation. In this context, there are five key most objectives that can or will be used to help improve the operations of a service industry (Dental health care as stated earlier). We will write a custom essay sample on Operations Performance Objectives or any similar topic only for you Order Now a)Quality Quality can be defined in so many ways. In simpler terms we will describe it as the element in a product that rises above the other and is able to satisfy the needs/specifications of a consumer and has some high value attached to it. Quality in operations performance objectives for a dental health care ensures that most appropriate treatment is delivered and that customers are all treated with courtesy (getting value for their money). This entails doing the right thing at the right time and meeting customer specifications, which leaves them satisfied. b)Speed Speed is defined as the elapsed time between customers’ placing orders and the goods/services being delivered to them. With speed, it means that the delivery of the service required is done within the shortest possible time. For example the time it takes for the dentist to screen the teeth of the patient to the time he gives an answer of what his findings are should be reduced and acceptable to the customer. In turn, this reduces likeliness of lagging behind and not being able to finish attending to all the patients in time. It does impact positively on the improvement of operations when time is highly considered. As the cliche goes, ‘time is money and time wasted is never gained, so use it wisely. ’ )Dependability Dependability is the delivery or making available of goods/services when they were promised to customers. It can also be defined as staying true to one’s word and trustworthiness. In this context it would mean avoiding cancellations of appointments with customers. It really pays highly to an organization for customers to know that they can depend on the services provide d to them at that particular organization. It helps in creating rapport with the customers, hence allowing for them to even encourage other people to come and seek for services from you. d)Flexibility This is the degree to which an operations process can change what it does, how it is done and when it is done. When something’s flexible, it simply means that there is room for change or adjustments. In this case, it means that the service industry (dental health care) should be ready to introduce new treatments and/or have many more treatment to match up to the customers’ ever changing and varying demands. This helps the industry to expand. e)Cost Cost can be defined as the monetary value attached to the services/goods provided and also attached to the production or offering of that good/service. Cost helps to identify how operation scan be run at a more affordable price right for the marketplace the industry operates in and be able to achieve good profit margins. To the producer or service provider, the lower the cost of production the means lower the prices for the customers, which means more savings. In conclusion, â€Å"performance objectives are the key to unlocking any communications or performance initiative. The answer is the foundation and structure of your work on any project: the performance objective. † Document Information Design Inc. 2004. How to cite Operations Performance Objectives, Papers

Forbidden Planet Comparison To Shakespeare free essay sample

# 8217 ; s The Tempest Essay, Research Paper On first glimpse, Forbidden Planet can easy be seen to parallel many other plants associating to engineering, nature, or both. One of the most obvious analogues is, of class, to Shakespeare? s The Tempest, the narrative of a adult male stranded on an island which he has single-handedly brought under his control through the usage of thaumaturgy. Indeed, the characters, secret plan, and lesson of Forbidden Planet mirror about precisely those of The Tempest, with the exclusion that where The Tempest employs charming, Forbidden Planet utilizes engineering. At this point, it is utile to remember one of Arthur C. Clarke? s more celebrated thoughts, which is that any engineering, when sufficiently advanced, is identical from thaumaturgy. Indeed, the engineering presented in Forbidden Planet is non meant to be understood by the audience, but instead is, for all purposes and intents, thaumaturgy. This is doubtless in portion because the engineering doesn? t exist and hence can non be explaine d to us. What is more of import, nevertheless, is that how the engineering works is irrelevant for the intent of the film, which is to entertain and to learn us a lesson about adult male? s control over the elements and over his ain technological creative activities. At this point a brief outline of the film would look to be in order, with particular attending as to how it relates to The Tempest. In The Tempest, a adult male named Prospero and his girl Miranda have been exiled to a distant island which is wholly uninhabited, salvage for an evil monster and her boy Caliban, and which is in a province of cardinal pandemonium. Using the charming powers he has cultivated all his life, Prospero bit by bit brings the forces of nature on the island under his control, and manages to somehow enslave Caliban, whose female parent has died in the meantime. ( Some of these inside informations are fuzzed because I am familiar with The Tempest merely through Marx ) . A group of crewmans is shipwrecked on the island, one of whom falls in love with Miranda, the lovely girl of Prospero. Finally, Caliban and other retainers secret plan to subvert Prospero, but are thwarted and taken back into servitude, thankful to acquire off that easy. Having summarized The Tempest, it is easy to sum up Forbidden Planet. A adult male named Dr. Morbius and his girl Altaira are stranded on a distant planet when a authorities ship lands at that place, whose commanding officer falls in love with the beautiful Altaira. The lone important difference in the two plants, other so puting, is the decision of each. Before we look at the differences at that place, nevertheless, it is necessary to look more closely at the symbolism behind each. In The Tempest, Prospero? s thaumaturgy is a symbol of engineering. It lets him chasten the island, is wholly at his bid, and even is apprehensible by those who take the clip to analyze it. Caliban represents the forces of nature, which Prospero has enslaved utilizing thaumaturgy, a.k.a. engineering. It is deserving observing here that Shakespeare perceives? nature? in the signifier of a wild, hostile environment, non as a? garden of Eden? signifier, a construct he pokes merriment at in one of the gap sce nes. Finally, nature rises up and lashes out at Prospero, but ( from what one can garner from Marx ) , his charming saves him. He so accepts Caliban back into servitude. The perfect harmoniousness is therefore achieved # 8211 ; adult male utilizing engineering to chasten nature, and making it so good that he achieves the best of both universes. Forbidden Planet teaches a different lesson, and Teachs it in two separate narratives. The first is the narrative of the Krell, a superintelligent race that rose to its extremum and so fell 2000 centuries before Dr. Morbius and his girl set pes on the planet. The Krell had achieved what they considered to be the pinnacle of engineering # 8211 ; they had left behind their physical organic structures in exchange for computing machines. Their consciousness resided in computing machines, which? projected? organic structures for them, so to talk. The perfect blending of adult male ( or animal, anyhow ) and Te chnology. They were, in fact, a version of Hardison? s? silicon animal? –they had no physical organic structures, save for a series of 1s and nothings stored someplace in the memory of a supercomputer 40 stat mis long. What the Krell had forgotten to research, nevertheless, was their ain mind. Confronted with the virtually illimitable power they had due to the nature of what they had become, all they did was booty, public violence, and otherwise prosecute in suicidal activity, so that in one twenty-four hours the full race was destroyed. In this instance, engineering in the signifier of the Krell? s supercomputer became a slave to the most basic signifier of nature–the subconscious, where cardinal emotions fury with all the rage of a physical storm. As we see, the consequences when nature controls engineering are black. The 2nd narrative is the narrative of Dr. Morbius. At the beginning, Altaira IV could easy be mistaken for Eden, albeit an waterless and alone one. While the country that the ship is in is a desert like clime, the brooding topographic point of Morbius and Alta seems climactic plenty. Deer frolick in the nearby wood, and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelams which are usually awful slayers are petted like kitty cats. It is the tiger which is the first hint that things are traveling incorrect. An obvious symbol of nature, a tiger attacks Alta one twenty-four hours while Commander Adams is at that place. Adams rapidly uses his chargeman on the tiger, typifying the arrant laterality of engineering over nature on Altaira IV. Shortly afterwards, things start acquiring worse, and culminate in a awful onslaught by? nature? in the signifier of Morbius? s subconscious on Adams? s ship. As the secret plan unfolds, we find out that Dr. Morbius, by tampering with engineering he didn? t to the full un derstand, managed to unwittingly kill tonss of people. It is deserving observing that Morbius realizes on some degree the extent to which things have gotten out of manus when his girl pleads with him to assist the crew of the ship. His answer to her is along the lines of? I can non assist him ( Commander Adams ) every bit long as he stays so wilfully? . In short what Morbius is stating is strongly reminiscient of Frankenstein? s message, that is, ? This engineering that I am purportedly? maestro? of has gotten out of my control, and I am powerless to halt it? . Dr. Morbius is a inexorable reminder once more of what can go on when engineering is allowed to increase unbridled, to the point where human existences can no longer understand it, allow entirely command it. Ironically, Dr. Morbius himself warned against the unbridled growing of engineering by declining to let world entree to the Krell? s fantastic secrets. Alternatively, he insisted that he would distribute what pearls of wi sdom he saw tantrum, the better to maintain world from destructing itself. In the terminal, of class, the full planet was destroyed, along with several neighbouring star systems. There are several lessons to be learned from Forbidden Planet. The first is that before adult male can trust to command nature or engineering, he needs to larn to command himself, as evidenced by the catastrophe which destroyed the Krell. Second, when engineering and nature are in direct struggle, the consequences will non be good, and will likely be destructive. Third, when engineering and nature are excessively far off balance from each other, the consequences will once more be damaging. In short, Forbidden Planet is a sort of Frankenstein which is more developed and has better symbolism, which is to state that it councils the same class of action that Florman does # 8211 ; cautiousness, but non inactivity. If we allow nature to run rampant, we clearly can non last. ( This statement once more takes the premise that? nature? is a storm, non a garden of Eden. ) If we allow engineering to travel unbridled, it will finally overpower us when we least anticipate it. And if we pit the two against each other, it will destruct our full solar system. The proper class of action, so, is merely what both Florman and Morbius propose # 8211 ; proceed easy, and take into history the fact that all that is new is non needfully good.

Health Sciences Radiolabeld DNA

Question: Discuss about the Health Sciences for Radiolabeld DNA. Answer: Introduction Two research groups independently developed In situ hybridization (ISH). The 28S RNA or Radiolabeld DNA was hybridized to cytological preparations from the oocytes of Xenopus and was detected through microautoradiography. The examination of nucleic acid sequences inside the cells has been allowed by this technique and it had not altered the morphology or integrity of the cell and its different components. Since then, the modification of ISH has been done for studying the evolution of chromosomes, chromosomal analysis of leukaemias and tumors together with the cytogenetic studies of a large number of species. Drs. Nielsen, Egoholm, Buchardt and Berg carried out the discovery of Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA) for the first time in the year 1991. PNA consists of a polyamide backbone i.e. the nucleobases that are modified and have extraordinary physical, biological and chemical properties like higher binding affinity, exceptional biological stability, blocking enzyme function, better specifi city, a probe for hybridization, cellular uptake, molecular diagnostics, labelling of plasmids with diverse kinds of fluorescent molecules and several other applications in the field of biomedical sciences. The potential applications of PNA include supramolecular nanostructure, antisense technology, nanoelectrical system, antisense technology and DNA computing. It also has nanomedical applications together with drug delivery and diagnostics for treating the microbial infections as well as diseases. In addition, the knowledge and understanding regarding the biological processes like protein synthesis and gene expression not only helps in the development of the procedures related to medical diagnostics, but are also useful in the medical treatment through the introduction of gene and antisense therapy (1). PNA has properties such as high sensitivity, high binding affinity and high specificities that have been explored in the PNA array that leads to the formation of a duplex of PNA/DNA because of the electrically neutral property of the oligomers of PNA. These strong duplexes of PNA/DNA bring about higher melting temperature (2). PNA probes possess high biological stability and are resistant to degradation by enzymes due to the presence of a backbone of N(2aminoethyl)glycine, which is not recognized by the proteases and nucleases. Since the enzymes cannot degrade the probes of PNA, the shelf life of of these probes is significantly long over years even at room temperature (3). Peptide Nucleic Acids have different applications based on its distinctive biophysical properties and have drawn the attention of molecular biologists, biochemists, chemists, material engineers, biotechnologists and material engineers for the development of genetic diagnostics, gene therapeutic drugs, identification of viral or bacterial contaminants in biological samples, as probes for FISH, microarray technology and DNA biosensors (4). The exceptional physicochemical properties of of PNA molecules, facilitates the development of assays that are uncomplicated and robust in several areas of biology together with molecular genetics, virology, microbiology, cytogenetics, and parasitology because of the chemical modifications that are new to the original backbone of PNA. This kind of modification may add to enhance PNAs potentialities for new applications in diagnostics and research like analysis of chromosome, analysis of point mutation, mycology, bacteriology, human pathology, and potential use in the form of therapeutic agents (5). The probes of PNA also provide an exceptional opportunity for specifically identifying microorganisms in the specimens of pathology, together with paraffin embedded and formalin fixed material. This particular technology associates pathology and clinical microbiology, provides a new format for testing, and opens the door to additional applications of test in clinical laboratory. The probe of PNA combines the simplicity with specificity and sensitivity of molecular technologies. This type of combination is compatible for replacing the current technologies, which provide fast and specific diagnosis and tests of microbiology that result in time of an appropriate therapy of a patient (6). The potential applications of PNA comprise supramolecular nanostructure, antisense technology, nanoelectrical system, antisense technology and DNA computing. It also has nanomedical applications together with delivery of drugs and diagnostics for treating the microbial infections as well as diseases. Additionally, the knowledge and understanding concerning the biological processes such as protein synthesis and gene expression not only assists in the development of the methods associated with medical diagnostics, but are also helpful in the medical treatment by the introduction of gene and antisense therapy. PNA has properties such as high sensitivity, high binding affinity and high specificities that have been explored in the PNA array that leads to the formation of a duplex of PNA/DNA because of the electrically neutral property of the oligomers of PNA. These strong duplexes of PNA/DNA bring about higher melting temperature. PNA probes possess high biological stability and are resis tant to degradation by enzymes due to the presence of a backbone of N(2aminoethyl)glycine, which is not recognized by the proteases and nucleases. Since the enzymes cannot degrade the probes of PNA, the shelf life of of these probes is considerably long over years. Robustness of PNA and its affecting factors The PNA probes are provided with the unique characteristics of hybridization like stronger and rapid binding to the complementary targets by the synthetic backbone. These properties of the molecules of PNA are elucidated by the lack of electrostatic repulsion characteristically encountered when the hybridization of negatively charged complementary oligomers of DNA occurs. Due to the presence of a non-charged backbone, the probes of DNA hybridize independent of the salt concentration. In addition, the physico-chemical behaviour of the probes of PNA comparative to DNA gets impacted due to the negative charges. They have facilitated the development of exceptional hybridization of PNA and PNA/target separation methods. All these methods encompass pre-gel hybridization as well as binding of hybrids of probe/target to the surfaces and polymers that are positively charged (7). The unnatural backbone of PNA also signifies that the degradation of PNA do not occur by the ubiquitous enzymes like proteases and nucleases. The elevated biostability is not only essential for their utilization as therapeutic antisense agents, but is also probable to enhance the stability of probes of PNA in the diagnostic applications and offer enhanced shelf-life of the product together with a better range of assay formats. Due the backbone, the recognition of PNA do not take place by polymerases and hence cannot be used directed or copied as a primer and the monomers of PNA cannot be incorporated enzymatically into amplicons. Characteristics make the self-reporting probe of PNA more robust molecules for detection involving the real-time PCR methods as compared to their counterparts that are derived from DNA, for example the hybridization probes for the light cycler that are degraded throughout PCR by means of Taq DNAs endonuclease activity (8). In reality, the variables like kind of fixative utilized (alcohol-based or aldehyde fixation) temperature, hybridization time, probe concentration, pH, formamide and dextran sulphate, among others, are identified to affect the efficiency of hybridization (9). The time and temperature of hybridization are important variables for the outcome of the process of hybridization and for lowering the temperature at which hybridization will be performed; formamide is most commonly used (10). The temperature of hybridization is associated with the affinity of the probe to the target and its estimation can be done by Gibbs free energy change, which is related to the reaction of hybridization. The time of hybridization has been linked with the process kinetics that encompasses probe penetration through the envelope of the cell, the probe binding with the complementary sequence together with the unfolding of secondary as well as tertiary structures of rRNA and probes eventual folded portions (11). For reducing the thermal stability of the double-stranded polynucleotides, Formamide (FA), which is a denaturing agent, is used. It enhances the accessibility of the target of rRNA and competes for hydrogen bonding that facilitates the hybridization to be performed at the lower temperatures. Hence, it has been presumed that the concentration of of FA required, together with the time and temperature of hybridization. It regulates the stringency of the process and is dependent only on the sequence of the target and the structure of the probe. Additionally, the physico-chemical behaviour of the probes of PNA comparative to DNA gets impacted due to the negative charges (12). For lowering the annealing temperature and boiling point of the strands of the nucleic acids in In situ hybridization (ISH), formamide is an ideal solvent. It has an advantage for preserving the morphology because of a lower temperature for incubation. Nonetheless, in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), aligned with the unique targets of DNA in tissue sections, for obtaining the adequate signal testing, an overnight hybridization is needed. Over the past 30 years, for in situ hybridization, the solvent for choice is formamide. It lowers the melting point through the destabilization of the double-stranded structure of the nucleic acid helix. Its toxicity is distinguished but has been overshadowed by its advantageous effects. When the hybridizing DNA probes to low copy number or single locus targets on the sections of Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue, an incubation of 16 hours or more is needed and is the major time consuming step in the procedure of in situ hybridizatio n. If the hybridization of the entire genome is done, for instance, with comparative genomic hybridization, a hybridization time 49 to 94 hours is often utilized. A major disadvantage of Fish utilizing the probes of oliginucleotides is the inconsistent and at times inadequate penetration of probes in the bacteria depending on the characteristics of their cell wall. In acid-fast bacilli and Gram-positive species, this is observed mainly as a problem. PNAs may be helpful to overcoming this problem. Because of the presence of their neutral backbone, the diffusion of PNAs occurs through the hydrophobic cell walls and allows the detection of mycobacterium through FISH and do not involve any pre-treatment. Utilising the specific fluorescently labelled PNAs, the differentiation between non-tuberculous and tuberculous mycobacteria was possible in the smears of mycobacterial cultures and directly in the samples of smear-positive sputum within few hours. However, in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), aligned with the distinctive targets of DNA in tissue sections, for obtaining the sufficient signal testing, an overnight hybridization is required . This method constitutes an enhancement in the regular diagnosis of tuberculosis and may assist in establishing FISH as a fast, cost-effective and valuable method in the field of clinical microbiology. An organism concentration of no less than 105CFU/ml is required by PNA-FISH for the rocess of detection. This is a limitation of PNA-FISH and this particular requirement may prove to be difficult for detecting the fastidious or slow-growing organisms. Generally, the probes of DNA shorter in comparison to the conventional nucleotides are needed for the specific binding. Therefore, they appear to be an interesting substitute to the conventional oligonucleotide probes. In comparison to aegPNA and DNA, it presented a better sequence specificity and a strong binding affinity towards DNA. Method available for detecting MRNA in the tissue section An essential tool for studying the spatial organization of the genome with a high accuracy is Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The labelled probes that target the entire chromosome or regions of chromosomes allow the direct visualization in the interphase as well as the metaphase (6). The generation of such painted probes can be done from the DNA isolated by the microdissection of the metaphase chromosome, followed by the amplification and labelling with the nucleotides that are modified by degenerate oligonucleotide primer- PCR(DOP-PCR). This method comprises the step of universal amplification that is mainly effective at amplifying the single copies of chromosome to produce paints or perform additional cytogenetic applications in which there is an availability of small quantity of DNA, for instance small pieces of microdissected tissue or single cells (7). On the other hand, Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH), is an appropriate substitute to FISH. It leads to the pro duction of a permanent chromosome by utilising peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase- labelled reporter antibodies, which interacts with the probes of the hybridized DNA that are subsequently detected by means of an enzymatic reaction (8). CISH is advantageous over FISH as it can be viewed through a bright-field microscope. For the rapid diagnosis of bacterial pathogens in the microbiology laboratory, Real-time (RT) PCR testing can be reliable as it is an emerging competing technology. It is probable to challenge directly PNA FISH (13). Unlike PNA FISH that assists in the detection of RNA in the living organisms and it can also detect the infections that are ongoing in nature, RT-PCR cannot distinguish between the past and current infection, and therefore it is very sensitive for the diagnosis, but may possibly lack clinical specificity (14). Its development was carried out for rapidly enhancing the process of DNA amplification and improvement of specificity and sensitivity over the traditional methods. The testing can be done on all the types of specimen, along with paraffin specimens, and combines DNA technology with the fluorescent probes of the product, which is amplified in the similar reaction vessel. Since the reaction takes place within a closed vessel, the risk of contamination of the environme nt is reduced and needs less time and produce rapid results within an hour in comparison to the traditional methods of PCR testing (15). A better healthcare can be achieved by rapid and accurate diagnosis and PNA probe is more efficient than the traditional methods in this context. In the present scenario, the rate at which the human pathogens are getting resistant is alarming and it is leading towards an urgent need for improving the diagnostic technologies that are intended for the rapid detection along with point-of-care testing for supporting the quick decision making concerning the management of patient and antibiotic therapy. These data reveal the advantage of rapid that can reduce the treatment of the cultures that are contaminated, reduce expenses and stay in the hospital and it may decrease antimicrobial resistance. A disparity among the empirical therapeutic and ensuing susceptibility result from a specific organism is one of the important factor that leads to the delaying of an effectual therapy (16). It has been revealed that early and rapid administration of antimicrobial therapy to the patients suffering from the infection of the bloodstream results in the reduction of mortality. In addition, the need for a rapid diagnosis has usually been overlooked due the practices of empiric and prophylactic treatment, which utilizes broad-spectrum antibiotics. At present, though, it is well established that more suitable utilization of antibiotics is needed for limiting the emergence of the pathogens that are resistant to multiple drugs. Altering the empiric nature of antibiotics, therapy in which the patients are covered with antibiotics of a broad spectrum needs new, fast and perfect tools of diagnosis for providing the physician with timely and reliable information for the therapy and management of patients (17). Clinical microbiology laboratory service is intended for detecting and identifying the specific microorganisms in the clinical specimens for diagnosing the infectious diseases. Nonetheless, the significance of precision and the ease of the slow, inexpensive methods frequently delay the reporting time for a number of days or weeks (18). The exceptional performance distinctiveness of PNA FISH are attributed to the high specificity of the probes of PNA integrated with the utilization of rRNA as a target and they evidently demonstrate how molecular diagnosis can offer accurate results within a particular frame of time and is not likely to use the traditional phenotype-based methods of identification. In addition, PNA FISH is better than the traditional methods for mixed cultures like Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia contaminated with coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species (CNS) and for almost the species that are indistinguishable, for example C.dubliniensis and C. Albicans, in which the traditional methods failed to, provide an accurate diagnosis (6). Today, diagnostic testing is developing to become a significant constituent of the modern medicine, which is based on information and focuses on to provide rapid as well as accurate results potentially resulting in the better treatment of patients, controlling infection, and management of healthcare. PNA FISH is an illustration of diagnosis tests in this new generation and is intended to provide a real-time impact on the therapy of the patients (18). Through the introduction of PNA FISH for the rapid diagnosis of the infections in the bloodstream, novel tools has been provided to the clinical microbiology laboratory for reporting the diagnostic results in time to select the correct therapy. This evidently exemplifies how the first therapy-directing diagnosis will target the diagnostic needs that are not met and are related to the current practices of treatment with the antibiotics that are commonly used (6) In the end, it can be concluded that precise diagnostic tests have a key role in the management of patient and the control of most irresistible illnesses. Unfortunately, in numerous developing countries, clinical care is frequently compromised by the absence of regulatory controls on the quality of these tests. The data accessible on the execution of a diagnostic test can be one-sided or defective as a result of failings in the configuration of the studies which evaluated the performance attributes of the test. Subsequently, diagnostic tests are sold and utilized in much of the developing world without confirmation of adequacy. Misdiagnosis leading to failure in treating a severe disease or squandering costly treatment on individuals who are not infected remains a serious problem of health and wellbeing. The improvement of a diagnostic test more often than not takes after a way from recognizable proof of the diagnostic target and advancement of test reagents to the improvement of a t est model. The exceptional physicochemical properties of of PNA molecules, facilitates the development of assays that are uncomplicated and robust in several areas of biology together with molecular genetics, virology, microbiology, cytogenetics, and parasitology because of the chemical modifications that are new to the original backbone of PNA. Currently, the rate at which the pathogens of humans are getting resistant is frightening and it is leading towards an urgent need for enhancing the diagnostic technologies that aimed to the rapid detection along with point-of-care testing for supporting the quick decision making concerning the patient management and antibiotic therapy. It shows the decrease in the treatment of the cultures that are contaminated, lessen expenses and stay in the hospital and it may reduce antimicrobial resistance. A difference among the empirical therapeutic and subsequent susceptibility result from a specific organism is one of the significant factor that le ads to the delaying of an efficient therapy.